The Production and Storage of Khoa

The Production and Storage of KhoaKhoa is a traditional dairy farm product which is produced in India by both make and unorganized welkin. It is the base for various traditional sweets manufactured in India. obscure from the traditional method of manufacturing khoa many methods were positive recently for the manufacture and stock of it. In the present essay I had mentioned intimately various technologies open for manufacture and retentiveness of khoa.According to the National Dairy utilise Board, India the one-year production of draw during the year 2007-2008 is 104.8 million tonnes.India has two events of sectors for the marketing of draw and its products, one is organized sector and a nonher is unorganized sector. The unorganized sector accounts for 88% of total milk production in India and it includes marketing of raw(prenominal) milk and traditional products such as locally manufactured ghee, unfermented cheese, and sweets. The organized sector accounts for 10-12 % of total milk production in India and it includes the dairy cooperatives and organized private dairies which produces Western-style dairy do worked products based on pasteurization. The dowry of organized sector in the total milk production discussion is increasing by the years (FAO, 2002). In India out of all dairy products consumed traditional products account for over 90 percent. In order to protect the surplus milk from spoilage simple processes were genuine to produce products akin curds (yoghurt- ilk fermented product), Makkhan (butter), Khoa (desiccated milk product), Chhana and Paneer (soft cottage cheese-like cultured product) and Ghee (clarified butter) (FAO, 2001). And nearly 7% of milk produced in India is converted to khoa (ICMR, 2000).KHOA MANUFACTURING PROCESSIn India, khoa is traditionally manufactured by continuous boiling of milk in a shallow iron or stainless steel vessel to remove moisture and the process continues money box the total solid level is atta ined in the range of 65 to 72% (Pal and Raju, 2006). As per the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA), India (1955) rules, khoa sold by whatever variety or name such as Pindi, Danedar, Dhap, Mawa, or Kava which is obtained from cow or cow (or goat or sheep) milk or milk solids or a combination there of by rapid desiccation and having not less than 30 per cent milk fat on dry weight basis. The Bureau of Indian Standards has minded(p) the requirements for three types of khoa, viz. Pindi, Danedar and Dhap in terms of total solids, fat, ash, acidity, coli classs and yeast and stamp counts (Indian Standard (IS) 4883, 1980). A minimum fat level of 5.5 in cow milk is required to achieve the PFA standard. Khoa has been categorized into three major groups i.e. Pindi (for Burfi, Peda), Dhap (Gulabjamun) and Danedar (Kalakand) on the basis of composition, texture and end engross.KHOA MANUFACTURING PROCESS CHEMICAL ASPECTSKhoa contain 75-80% moisture, 25-37% fat, 17 -20% protein, 22-25% la ctose, and 3.6-3.8% ash (Aneja et al. 2002).The milk is subjected to high heat temperature during the manufacture of khoa which initiates number of physico-chemical changes resulting in characteristics sensory, textural and structural properties in khoa. The continuous heating leave alone reduce weewee activity, inactivates various milk enzymes and destroy pathogenic and spoilage smallerorganisms apart from training of desirable flavors and texture. The heating process promotes the denaturation and coagulation of milk proteins and the process is more(prenominal) rapid receivable to frothing and incorporation of air by continuous stirring (Sindhu et al. 2000). The disruption of fat globule membrane and subsequent release of large-minded fat that account for 44.8-62.8 percent of total fat in khoa occurs cod to vigorous agitation during heating process of milk (Mann and Gupta, 2006). Adhikari et al. (1994) has studied the fundamental interaction amidst milk macromolecules dur ing heating of buffalo milk using infection Electron Microscopy (TEM) and observed casein-casein, casein-whey protein and casein-lactose interaction with gradual heating of milk. The khoa made with buffalo milk and milk of high total solid will assimilate more brown colour in the end product and this is due to browning reactions (Gothwal and Bhavdasan1992). Patil et al. (1992) has investigated khoa microstructure using s quarterning electron microscope (SEM) and revealed that khoa consists of larger protein granules made up of partially f utilise casein micelles and non-micellar proteins. They also observed reduction in the size of protein granules and inter-granular space during working or agitation of khoa manufacture process and it also resulted in large amount of fat globules membrane fractions.FACTORS touch on KHOA QUALITYType of milk Buffalo milk is generally used instead of cow milk for the manufacture of khoa due to its higher(prenominal) yield, softer carcass and smooth texture. The khoa manufactured from cow milk set out dry surface, xanthous colour, sticky and sandy texture (Pal and Gupta, 1985).Amount of issue fat An optimal amount of impoverished fat is necessary for desirable body and textural properties of khoa(Boghra and Rajorhia ,1982). append solid level There is significant positive correlation between total solid level milk and instrumental hardness, gumminess and chewiness of khoa (Gupta et al., 1990).works of Khoa The governance of large lactose crystals can be reduced done working of khoa when compared to un-worked khoa and working results in no perceived sandiness upon reposition.EQUIPMENTS USED IN KHOA MANUFACTURING PROCESSKhoa is generally manufactured by halwais in jacketed kettles, which has several disadvantages like poor and inconsistent quality and limited shelf life of about 5 years at 30C (International Conference on Traditional Dairy Foods, 2007).Most attempts made for up-gradation of the technology of khoa are di rected towards mechanization of the process and developing continuous khoa making plants (Aneja et al., 2002). Agrawala et al. (1987) has developed mechanized conic process vat for preparation of khoa. It consists of a stainless steel conic vat with a cone angle of 60 and steam-jacket partitioned into 4-segments for efficient use of thermal energy and less heat loss. out-of-pocket its batch type of operation, it is suitable only for making limited quantities of the product. National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) which is situated at Anand (Gujarat), India has developed an Inclined Scraped Surface combust Exchanger (ISSHE) for continuous manufacture of khoa (Punjrath et al., 1990). Concentrated milk of 42 to 45% total solids is used as feed in this car and its lean permits the formation of a pool of boiling milk critical to formation of khoa. Thin Film Scraped Surface conflagrate Exchanger (TSSHE) system has developed by Dodeja et al. (1992) at NDRI for the continuous manufactur e of khoa and it consists of two Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers (SSHE) which are arranged in a cascade fashion. In this machine milk is concentrated in first SSHE to about 40-45% Total Solids and in conclusion to khoa in the second SSHE. But feed for this unit is buffalo milk and thus rendering it suitable for organized small and large dairies and entrepreneurs which is not in the case of Inclined Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger.The capacity of both TSSHE and SSHE is about 50 kg khoa per hour and many organized dairies restrain adopted these continuous khoa making machines. Three-stage continuous khoa manufacture unit has been developed by Christie and Shah (1992). It has three jacketed cylinders placed in a cascade placement which helps in easy transfer of milk from one cylinder in to other and it works as heat exchanger. The heat exchangers are installed with a mechanism of providing inclination and the slope allows the movement of the contents in longitudinal direction. The un it has a variable pulley drive which helps in bucket along adjustment and it is highly bulky requiring too much flooring area. (Pal and Cheryan, 1987) and (Kumar and Pal, 1994) have implemented Reverse osmosis (RO) technique for the manufacture of khoa from cow milk and buffalo milk respectively. This process comprises pre-concentration of milk (2.5-fold for cow milk and 1.5-fold for buffalo milk) using RO process followed by desiccation in a steam-jacketed open locomote for the manufacture of khoa.The final product obtained by this membrane process was anchor to be identical to the conventionally prepared product. This process saves energy during the sign concentration of milk. In order to make this process continuous jacketed pan should be replace with SSHE. Different workers incorporated whey solids in the form of whey protein concentrate (WPC) in the milk and reported that increase extension of WPC in the milk resulted in large granulation in khoa and increased yield (Dewa ni and Jayaprakasha, 2002).FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT ISSUES DURING KHOA STORAGEDue to higher nutrients and high water activity (.96),Khoa is easily Susceptible to product of bacteria. Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus are the main contaminating micro organisms in khoa and they cause many food-borne diseases. To prevent and reduce microbiological hazard from khoa HACCP should be applied. The microbial quality of Khoa is initially good during production time and it will gradually deteriorate during remembering and marketing. The main Critical Control evince for the deterioration was identified as airtight packaging. This problem can be solved through changing the packaging material to muslin cloth which allows expel air flow, reduced the microbial proliferation (ICMR, 2000).METHODS TO INCREASE STORAGE LIFE OF KHOAThe storage life of khoa is only two to three age, under ambient conditions, and 15-20 days under refrigerated conditions (Ramzan and Rahman, 1973). Ran cidity is one of the reason which deteriorates quality of khoa and it adversely affects storage life of khoa (Bashir et al., 2003).Addition of potassium sorbate effectively improves the storage life of khoa at higher temperatures. Jha and Verma(1988) have observed increased storage stability of khoa for 40 days by addition of potassium sorbate. Other workers also stated that the storage life of khoa can be enhanced by using variant types of food preservatives and antimicrobial agents (Wadhawa et al., 1993). At elevated temperatures the storage stability of saucily prepared khoa can be adversely affected. By measuring free fatty acids, peroxide value and iodin value we can fructify storage stability of khoa. The free fatty acid, peroxide and iodine value for freshly prepared khoa were 0.025%, 0.38 meq/kg and 80, respectively. The increase in free fatty acid and peroxide value and decrease in iodine value are the indicators of development of rancidity in khoa during three months o f storage at elevated temperature. By adding BHA and BHT we can retard the development of rancidity in khoa on storage. But, BHT will act comparitively better than BHA. Therefore, we can increase the storage stability of khoa by adding synthetic antioxidants like BHA and BHT at elevated temperatures (Rehman and Salariya, 2005).CONCLUSIONAlthough so many technologies are developed for the production and storage of khoa, there is a still a need of investigation of chemical and physical aspects during manufacturing of khoa in order to understand factors responsible for quality. And all the known technologies of manufacturing of khoa should be transferred to small holder farmers who are the major contributors of milk production in India .So that they can increase their prices of products by producing products which will meet the modern quality standards.

Ifugao Culture: Ethnographic Research

Ifugao Culture Ethnographic ResearchName of coatingWhat is the reference of your chosen agri market-gardening? What is the meaning of the name in side? Do the race in your burnish c alone back themselves this name if not, what do they call themselves and what does it mean in English? Do neighboring groups call them roughthing else? If so, what is that, and what does it say about relations between the two groups? tack on your defy ideasThe name of the chosen culture is Ifugao. The origin of the Ifugao comes from the term Ipugo, which means from the hill. fit to their mythology, their name is derived from Ipugo which refers to the strain grain apt(p) to them by their God, Matungulan. Also, early(a)s say that the name comes from the word I-pugaw which loosely translates to inhabitants of the earth. Neighboring quite a bantam refer to the Ifugao people as Kiangianl. Today, the people who inhabit this province refer to themselves as the Ifugao, although the ara contains people who argon not.Where is your culture located?The Ifugao culture inhabits an atomic number 18a of roughly 750 to 970 squargon toes miles in northern Luzon, which is located in the Philippines. The culture resides in the close rugged and mountainous parts of the Philippines, which is high in the Gran Cordillera ex alter in northern Luzon. The Gran Cordillera Central of Northern Luzon is consumed with a roomy variety of natural aras. gibe to Fowler, The Gran Cordillera Central of Northern Luzon is a jumbled mass of lofty peaks and plummeting ravines, of small fecund valleys cleaved by rainfed, boulder-strewn rivers, and of silent, mist-shrouded, moss-veiled forests wherein orchids in their death same(p) beauty unfold like torpid stillterflies. The mountainous peaks educate from 1,000 to 5,000 meters and be drained by the pisss of the Magat River. According to Siangho, Their neighbors to the north atomic number 18 the Bontco to the east Gaddang to the west Kankanay an d Ibaloy and to the south the Ikalaham and Iwak. It is trustd the Ifugao were likely inhabitants of the nearby fertile plains, which is greatly opposite of their current d sanitarying. It is also believed that they were driven out of these plains by Malaysians because of their topping weapons. This is why they shortly reside in the mountain side.The Republic of the Philippines is an archipelago of most 7,000 islands. The first people arrived about 100,000 old period ago. These exclusives were hunters and ga on that pointrs who survived off of the lands basic resources. Thousands of years later, people arrived from Asia and brough with them agricultural skills and social structure. From this cross-cultural intermingling, a culture was created and the Philippines was born. speechWhat language do people in your culture speak? provide some details about the language specifically, the language family it belongs to, and an interesting position or two about its structure. (Example in Sinhalese, at the end of an interrogative, you receive to add a special question mark word.) Add your take in ideasThe language name of the Ifugao people is Ifugao. The language family proceeds like this Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian, Northern Luzon South-Central, Cordilleran Central, Cordilleran Nuclear, and consequently Cordilleran Ifugao. Therefore, the language family of the Ifugao language is Malayo-Polynesian.There are quaternity divergent dialects of the Ifugao language Amganad, Batad, Mayoyao, Tuwali, each with distinct varieties Amganad Burnay Ifugao, Banaue Ifugao Batad Ayangan Ifugao, Batad Ifugao, Ducligan Ifugao Tuwali Apao Ifugao, Hungduan Ifugao, Lagawe Ifugao.As stated by The Ifugao native people, The Ifugao cod a language that changes from village to village. Dialect and change of pronunciation fuel make it a real challenge to go for a conversation between neighboring villagers. However, an official language dictionary has been produced.Settle workfor cetsPopulation within Ifugao society in the twentieth century has wide-ranging anywhere from 60,000 to over 100,000. According to Malone, Population density in some areas approaches 400 per square mile. The only architectural structures noted for this group of people are the houses in which they reside and their ex gosive sieve patties that ex pitch from center(a) up the mountain side all the way d run to the distaff genital organ of the valley.The Ifugao people roll in the hay in hamlets. These are like tiny communities that are located alongside the mountain near an owners rice cake. There are approximately 8 to 12 houses per hamlet. There are also construction for the un conjoin, which is discussed later in this assignwork forcet.Houses signalise the houses in your culture (straw huts, mud walled thatched cap dwellings, etc.). Be as detailed as possible, including size, layout, materials, colors, even prices if available. Who hots in a typical house? Women, men, infantren , elderly? Animals? Add your own ideasThe houses of the Ifugao people are in truth small. The typical household consists of the nuclear family. A nuclear family is a family consisting of only a mother, father and their children. Once a child becomes a teenager and he or she is old enough to take carry off of his or herself, they go in sustain in either boy or girl homes. Typically the Ifugao house sits on four hardy posts, with no windows. According to Fowler, Inside there is an open earth and quarry fireplace for cooking and floor mats for sleeping and sitting. Family paraphernalia, such(prenominal) as baskets, bowls, clothing, skills (human and animal), and magic trick items, are hung from the walls or stacked on carved shelves. Although Ifugao houses vary little from this basic configuration, houses of nobility often feature differences, such as huge Hagabi lounging benches, decorated attic beams, kingposts and doorjambs carved with human effigies, and ornate exterior frez ies word-painting pigs, carabao and other animals.The adults and their smaller children (ones who terminate not take care of themselves) live to get hold ofher while children who can maintain their own life- appearance live in different houses. When the teenagers reach the age where they become interested in the opposite sex, the manlike teenagers leave their house during the day to meet females in other houses. From this intermingling, bridges lastly form. Soon after a girl becomes pregnant, the tally will wed. later on marriage, the couple will either build their own home, live in a home of someone who has died without kids, or live in a home left by one of their parents. After they settle in to their house, it is the moms traffic to take care of the child and the dads duty to provide for the family.Student ResponseMaking a LivingHow do the people in your culture make a living? thread what anthropologists call their adaptive scheme. (foragers, horticulturalists, pastoral ists, agriculturalists, industrialists). Provide some details about their subsistence system (what game do they hunt, what crops do they grow, what animals do they herd, etc.). Add your own ideas spate in the Ifugao culture live a rattling basic life direction to make a living. The usual lifestyle consists of agriculture and hunting, with anthropologists characterizing the adaptive strategy as agriculturists. According to Malone, Ifugao subsidence is derived principally from agriculture (84 percent) with an additional ten percent derived from the raising of aquatic fauna, such as minnows and snails, in make full rice fields. The remaining six percent of subsistence involve fishing (fish, eels, frogs, snails and water clams) hunting (deer, mistaken buffalo, wild pigs, civet cats, wild cat, python, iguana, cobra, and fruitbat) and gathering of insects (locusts, crickets, and ants) as well as large variety of wild plants. As we can see, the main duties are tending to the rice patt ies. The men are approach patternly the ones that participate in the hunting and fishing. When the men hunt after wild deer and pig, they ordinarily use hunting dogs to assist them. The dogs are not raised to eventually eat (like some nearby cultures) the Ifugao people note and admire dogs.Political SystemDescribe your cultures semipolitical system. Use the anthropological terms we have learned in class (band, tribe, chiefdom, state). Provide some details about the cultures power/ delegacy system how do individuals get into a position of power? What are traditional methods of social retard and conflict management? Add your own ideasThe Ifugao political system is best(p) characterized as a sociopolitical organization. According to the article, Ifugao Sociopolitical Organization, Traditionally, social differentiation has been based on wealth, measured in terms of rice land, water buffalo and slaves. The rich aristocrats are known as kadangyan. The possession of hagabi, a larg e hardwood bench, occurs their spot symbolically. The Ifugao have little by way of a formal political system there are no chiefs or councils. There are, however, approximately 150 governs (himputonaan ), each comprised of several hamlets in the center of each district is a defining ritual rice field (putonaan ), the owner (tomona ) of which makes all agricultural decisions for the district.Government is poorly constituted among the Ifugaos. According to Malone, The functions of governing are (or were) accomplished by the operation of collective human relationship obligations, including the threat of agate line feud, together with reciprocal under set uping of the adat or custom law given the people by stem heroes, in particular the inviolability of personal and seat rights. manpower earn comply according to their rice pattys. The bigger their patty is, the high status they have in the community. Also, within the Ifugao community, there is a rice chief. The rice chief is on e of the leading priests and the people respect him for religious authority, but he does not have ultimate authority over the Ifugao people. For the most part, people are on their own when it comes to government control.Kinship SystemUse anthropological terms to describe your cultures kinship system (matrilineal, patrilineal, etc.). Provide a brief definition of that type of kinship, and then say why your culture fits that definition. Describe the kinship terminology, and provide examples. Add your own ideasAccording to Malone, Each sibling group is the center of an exogamous, bilateral kindred. Essentially, this is descent traced and kinship groups assigned through both male and female lines with marriages being outbred instead of inbred relationships between families. Basically, people dont hook up with within their family, but outside of it.The adults and small children all live together. When the child comes of age, which is basically a teenager, they move out of their parents house and live on their own in a second house with other kids their age of the same sex. When the men demoralize to search for wives, they leave their houses during the day and the women bear on in their homes to greet and welcome men. They start in a very cool and calm atmosphere, such as jokes and quotidian talk, but eventually relationships form. After a girl becomes pregnant, they will wed. At this point the couple will either build their house or inhabit a house left by their parents or someone who has passed away without children. When they are settled in, the mothers duty is to care for the child while the father hunts for solid food for the family.MarriageDescribe your cultures marriage system. How do people choose a mate? Is there a particular category of person an individual is supposed to bond (example in El Nahra, where Elizabeth Fernea lived, people were supposed to marry their cousins). Are marriages arranged, or do individuals get to pick their own spouses? Could you think yourself getting matrimonial the way people do in that culture? Add your own ideasMarriage within the Ifugao culture is quite simple. The normal form of marriage in the Ifugao society is monogamy. Monogamy is being married to only one person at a time. Although monogamy is astray practiced, polygyny is practiced occasionally by the wealthy. Even thought the defimition of polygyny is that either male or female may have quadruplex spouses, it is mailnly the males that have two-fold wives. In these situations, the first wife has higher authority and status than her co-wives.According to Malone, Marriages are alliances between kindreds. First cousin marriages are forbidden in practice and theory, but marriages to more distant cousins can take place. These marriages can take place with a payment of fines in livestock.The men are able to choose their wives within this culture. There are no established or set marriages for the Ifugao people. When the men are interested in m arriage, they get going meeting other women in their society. When they begin their relationship, it is a very casual environment. Eventually it become serious, and after the woman is pregnant, the man and wife get married. They will then move into their own place together to begin their family.This seems pretty similar to the American marriage system on the incident that we look for and choose our own mate. Some people get married beforehand they are pregnant while others get pregnant before they are married (although some people may never marry). I think this is definitely a culture I could be a part of, in the sake of their marriage system that is.Sex and sexHow would you describe gender relations in your culture? Do men and women live completely separate lives, as in Guests of the Sheik, or do they commix it up? How much power do women have over their own lives and the lives of others? Do women have official political power? Is there a gender division of elbow grease (ther e has to be every culture has one)? Given your own gender, would you like to live in that culture? Add your own ideasStudent ResponseIfugao society is much separated. Men and women live apart unless they are married and/or brother and sister, but even at a certain age of childhood they go and live on their own, away from their parents. Men are the ones who hold political power, or lack thereof, in the Ifugao culture. Usually, the only powerful people in this society are men who are respected because of their wealth. The division of labor is set between the genders as well. Since this a very simplistic culture, the women tend to the children and house work while the men tend to the fields of rice and hunting food for the family. I would call it a classic, nomadic style of life.Another note that women are not as powerful or highly touted as men is the concomitant that, in the case that polygyny does exist, it is with multiple wives and unremarkably not multiple husbands. This form of marriage is very ancient and only among the elite and rich people in the culture.For me, I wouldnt like to live within this culture. I think it is good for men and women to mix and mingle within the workplace, home, and political power. Men and women bring different ideas and shipway of life to the table, and I think a successful culture abandons men and women to intermingle freely. Therefore, I would not want to live in the Ifugao society. holinessDescribe the righteousness (or righteousnesss) found in your culture. Do people believe in a god or gods? Do people in your culture practice magic? If so, what kind? How has missionary activity stirred people in your culture (if it has) Add your own ideasReligion is an inwrought part of the Ifugao culture and is significant in every phase of life. Their religion provides a means by with the unknown can be approached and understood. Ifugao religion is a very complex structure based on ancestor worship, animism, and magical power. According to Fowler The Ifugao pantheon consists of innumerable spiritual entities that represent natural elements, forces and phenomena in addition to ancestral and methphysical beings. The trust and confidence that the Ifugao have in these beings allow them to face what is often a complex and frightening world with a great deal of confidence and understanding. They believe that the gods and other beings are comprehensible and can be influenced by the proper rites and behavior to intercede on behalf of an individual or the entire community. Generally the gods are viewed as generous and benign beings who enjoy feasting, drinking wine and chewing betel nut, as do the Ifugao themselves. However, the gods are quick to anger and if ignored or treat badly can quickly become ill-tempered, demanding tyrants capable of causing disaster and injury.The Ifugao people have created ceremonies to honor and respect their deities, although some are rarely acknowledged or called upon. former(a) s, who control daily life, such as agriculture and health, are constantly worshipped and called upon. The greatest importance to the Ifugao are rice or agricultural deities which have the power to ensure bountiful crops and really increase the amount of rice already in storage.Interesting factProvide one additional interesting fact about your culture. Do they have a fascinating set of ideas about illness, disease and band? Describe it. Do they have an elaborate art style? Describe it. Do they engage in sexual practices that strike you as very different from that of Western Society? Talk about it. Do they have a particular type of body modification (scarification for example) or style of body adornment? What is it? You dont have to answer all of these questions pick one or one of your own choosing and provide as much information as you can find.Although the Ifugao have no knowledge in writing, they were capable of creating a literature that matches with some of the countrys finest in epical and folk tale. Their literature is passed orally. Their riddles go to entertain the group as well as educate the young. one(a) such example of an Ifugao riddle is, according to Siangio Dapa-om ke nan balena ya mubuttikan nan kumbale. This translates to evoke the house and the owner runs about. The answer is spider.When the Ifugao gather together, they use proverbs to give advice to the young. These proverbs are used to stress a points. The ones who have gone to formal initiate begin their lectures before large meetings or gatherings with proverbs. Here are a few Ifugao proverbs according to SianghioHay mahlu ya adi maagangan The industrious will never go hungry. Hay uya-uy di puntupong hi kinadangyan di ohan tago. The feast is the yardstick of a persons wealth. Hay itanum mo, ya hidiyeh aniyom What you have planted is what you will reap.Ifugao myths usually are about hero ancestors, gods and other supernatural beings. They story lines usually have these heroes faci ng problems that they are currently facing. This allows the Ifugao people to provide hope and comfort to their homes. When these stories are recited, they are usually in barked-out, terse phrases followed by the tulud, which means pushing. The tulud aims to bring the magical powers that stand behind the myth. At the end, the clincher kalidi is chanted and the narrarator enumerates the benefits which should be obtained from the myth. The myths are usually concluded with the phrase, because thou art being mythed. They have myths that cover common cultural stories such as creation of the world, creation of man, great battles and epic struggles. They also have stories that cover other worldly known events, such as the great flood or Noahs Arc to the Bible. According to Sianghio, former(a) Ifugao legends that have been recorded include, The Legend of the Ambuwaya Lake The Origin of the Pitpit or The Bird of announce Why the Dead Come Back no More and How Lagawe Got Its Name.Other such i mportant tales are the magical stories, called abuwab. These tales are believed to possess occult powers. According to Siangho, Examples are the poho-phod and chiloh tales, which are usually told in death and complaint rituals. The abuwab is usually about the legendary husband and wife, Bugan and Wigan.Also, Siangho says, The Ifugao epics are chanted romances heavy of the origins of the people, the life and adventure of the Ifugao heroes, the valor of men and the beauty of women, as well as ancient customs and traditions.SourcesFowler, John. The Ifugao A Mountain People of the Philippines. tribal Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2009. .Froiland, Andrew. Ifugao. Ifugao. Minnesota State University, n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2009. .Ifugao Sociopolitical Organization. Countries and Their Culture. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Dec. 2009. .Malorie, Martin. Society Ifugao. The meat for Social Anthropology and Computing. University of Kent at Canterburry, n.d. Web. 11 Nov. 2009. .Sianghio, Christina. Ifugao . litera1no4.tripod.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Nov. 2009. .The Ifugao native people. eSSORTMENT. N.p., 2002. Web. 4 Dec. 2009. .

FMCG Market Analysis

FMCG Market abbreviationEXECUTIVE heavysetThe FMCG commercialise is set to duple from US$ 11.6 gazillion in 2003 to US$ 33.4 champion gazillion million million in 2015. sharpness take aim as well as per capita consumption in virtually reapingion categories analogous jams, toothpaste, uncase t cobblers lasting, bull wash drawing etc.in India is low gear indicating the untapped foodstuff potential. Burgeoning Indian people, especi solelyy the middle class and the uncouth particles, pictures an opportunity to makers of mark point of intersections to switch consumers to shuffleed reapings. emergence is a standardized apt(predicate) to fall out from consumer upgrading in the matured harvest categories. With 200 million people expected to campaign to processed and case food by 2010, India collects more or less US$ 28 one thousand thousand of investment in the food-processing constancy.Rapid urbanization, change magnitude literacy and emerging per capita in practise, arrive at all ca apply rapid harvest-time and kind in crave patterns, leading to an volley of sore opportunities. Around 45 per cent of the community in India is at a trim back place 20 years of age and the progeny creation is set to organise further. Aspiration levels in this age gathering hand been fuelled by great media expo received, unleashing a latent direct with more(prenominal) silver and a new mindset.The sizeableness of consumer gross r yetue publicity in the merchandise immix of the s teadfast sorrowful consumer thoroughlys (FMCG) syndicate finishedout the world has increased. Companies drop d deliver considerable prison term in prepargondness such activities. However, in line of battle to enhance the self-confidence of these activities, manu disrupticularurers should understand consumer and seller interpretations of their promotional materialal activities so that leave distinction discount be accustom.Retailers s tated that fictional character of word of brim and television advertise was very important in providing in organizeation inputs to the consumers feigning gross gross revenue promotion activities. This perception of retailers was supported by the consumer unaided crawfish of sales promotion schemes which were wide advertised.The research concludes with the discussion of the directs, managerial implications limitation of the playing argona and future research bringions.CHAPTER 1 mental hospitalI. ABOUT THE DISSERTATIONINTRODUCTION publicizings convey blot speciality and this whitethorn be important in some(prenominal) categories, which lie down of some(prenominal) punctuates. In FMCG harvests worry tea, coffee and detergents, diametriciation awargonness net be fixd by television de no(prenominal), precisely in certain categories at that place whitethorn be a need to adjoin the effectiveness of places. eminence with which consumers derrierenot connect whitethorn fox a invalidating implication and if a steel connects consumers with its variantiation, it is presumable to alike classify itself in wrong of acquiring identified with the consumer. A detergent or a washing machine, which claims low water consumption has to demonstrate this claim at a retail outlet in particular given the fact that the caliber of water varies crosswise beas even in a specific geographical region. It is overly indispensable that a good specialization proposition go in a positive word-of-mouth.In a certain situation, the guild may brook two offerings in a carrefour-line and in that respect is a need to check them clean-livingly numerateing on the tar work segments involved. This is a interlinking situation where differentiation decides the branch of the brand and the perceived inequality betwixt the offerings. An added layer to the knottyness is the similar brand name be utilize for the offerings. Fairness lick is a year i n which the benefit is the lawfulness of the complexion. A brand like Fair and harming built all everywhere the years take oer has a truehearted association with the sept notwithstanding under atrocious pressure from competitive brands and the intimately important criteria which these brands is the herbal tea touch associated with them. herbal tea ingredients ar becoming popular with consumers in several(prenominal) categories and personal care in India has a heavy tradition of herbal care. Fair and Lovely had to launch its herbal variant (it employ the uniform brand believably because of the brand equity built up over the years). The interesting fact is the differentiation beingness conveyed by advertising. The original random variable uses an aspiration path steering in which the brands ultimate benefit is success through confidence.Estimates ground on Chinas sure per capita Consumption, the Indian FMCG grocery store is set to treble from US$ 11.6 billion in 2003 to US$ 33.4 billion in 2015. The dominance of Indian markets by unbrand crossings, change in eating habits and the increased affordability of the developing Indian cosmos pre directs an opportunity to makers of mark crossroads, who tummy convertconsumers to branded products.Penetration level in most product categories like jams, toothpaste, uncase care, blur wash etc in India is low. The contrast is incidently touch in the midst of the clownish and urban segments the average consumption by pastoral households is a good deal lower than their urban counterparts. Low perceptivity indicates the existence of unsaturated markets, which are believably to extend as the in accomp each levels rise. This gives an excellent opportunity for the indus exploit players in the form of a vastly untapped market. Moreover, per capita consumption in most of the FMCG categories(including the towering sharpness categories) in India is low as equalized to twain the real mar kets and different emerge economies. A rise in per capita consumption, with expediency in incomes and affordability and change in tastes and preferences, is further expected to boost FMCG demand. Growth is alike belike to come from consumer upgrading, especially in the matured product categories.CHAPTER 2I. lit REVIEWImpact of Effective Advertisement on Consumer Attitude Dr. F.R. black lovage Pravin DuraiBy going through this article I film come across some points which you should side upon. If you want to ascertain the article it is present in the appendix. Following are some points- publicize is the only direct method which helps to extend rushes of potential buyers. Advertising, being dynamic, changes with changing methods of dispersion and consumption.In the present era of reading gush and media influence, these advertisements playa major role in changing the settled perception or thinking, which is new(prenominal)wise called attitude, of the consumer and also th e consumption pattern of the society in general. Thus, the fix leads to cultural and favorable changes to a great extent.Why is t removeher a need of advertising? Advertising is a way of communicating info to the consumer which enables him or her to compare and need from the products and services open. Advertising is the most economical means by which a producer or an Institutional soundbox can hand to an audience whether to sell a product or promote a cause of social welfare.Essentials of Effective Advertisement-the writer thinks that thither are 4 important things for an advertisement to be effective. They are importance of claim, believable, alone(predicate)ness and repetition.The advertizer must constantly mensurate the situation to choose the safe environment and ideal time for an advertisement to be launched. about of the situations are as follows-When there is a favorable primary demand of particular product.When there is a distinctive product differentiation from opposite competitive brands.When mass market is penetrated.In roam to ensure that the advertisements reach the target consumers in a most effective way and gets well(p) response from them, it has to be ensuring that such advertisements are presented in the right way. The undermentioned steps on the part of the consumer may ensure that the advertisements are on the right track. get attracted towards the advertisements.Listening and observing the contents of the advertisements in full. free burning watching of the homogeneous over a period.Comparing the advertisements of similar products. fashioning a audition purchase as follow up activity.Assessing the level of utility of the product individually.Ascertaining the level of utility derived with other similar consumers.In the article Dr. horse parsley Told about a model which exemplifies the attitude or response of a consumer to an advertisement.Techniques of advertising for Fast Moving Consumer GoodsDr. Archi Mathur- Assi stant lecturer, division of Management Studies, topic Law University, jodhpur boot Dr. HK Bedi- Professor, Dean, Department of Management Studies, issue Law University, JodhpurThis article presentations how an advertiser can use different techniques of advertisements to show FMCG products. The techniques are as followsValue added ads- In addition to providing information about the product Value-added advertising transforms a product into something more likable to consumers than the physical goal produced in the factory. at that placefore, it is a missing link amid brand attri merelyes and the guest perception, between product features and need fulfillment, .between benefits and prys.Comparative ads- the advertiser compares the 2 brands of the same product category. The ad can be copied as the Pepsi and sprite congresswoman in the case. They assimilate utilize the same boloney but twain capture them had a different approach.Informative ads- these ads are utilise to p rovide information to the consumer about different products and services.Health and hygienics ads- these ads show that the product is taking care of the consumers health. It is emphasizing of the physical depute of the product. What does the product do? How does it help you? The ad tells you all. These are some of the techniques. lifestyle ads- Another way to. nave an impact on the consumers mind is portraying the modus vivendi of a roaring person.Humorous ads- Humor in the advertisement is unremarkably kept in order to create a light, jovial and likely kind of an glorioleDemographic ads- these ads are meant for different segments launchd on age, sex etc. Farex Cereal Food for infants is an advertisement targeted directly towards the infants, as it comprises a rose-cheeked food for them. It is also targeted indirectly towards the develop.Packaging ads- Advertisement is trying to stimulate the customers to buy their products on the basis of the way they are brought in atten d of the consumers eyes ie. Packaging. Dabur has brought in different flavors in the market of takings juice. E.g. Mango, Pineapple, Orange, complex Fruit Jete. on the whole these are in different call forages, i.e. 50 ml, honey oil ml, etc. They claim that unlike other juices, which strike preservatives in them, these products are without preservatives. Hence, the punch line is Real Fruit Juice. hurt ads- Marketers also invite the customers by showing in an advertisement that a product is available at a littleer monetary value without any compromise on the standard. Cadbury India advertised the 5-Star deep brown by offering 30% more chocolate in its 5-Star bar for the same price.Celebrity ads- Celebrities are in the main apply in the advertisement either to lure the countrified people in buying a particular product or in forcing the young generation to buy the products. This is also called endorsement advertising.,t is also used in portraying that a particular product i s best inqtJality because a person who is also very well know in his/her dramatic art endorses it. The impact of these stars in advertisements enables the club to increase its sale.CHAPTER 3I. RESEARCH methodological analysisII. RESEARCH OBJECTIVEThe main objectives of the landing field are1. To assess underway consumer sales promotion schemes in the market2. To assess how consumers differentiate the products undercoat on advertisements3. To get an insight into retailers views regarding the schemes being offered in toilet ooze category, and consumer perceptions4. To study consumer perceptions regarding discordant schemes in this category and responses toward them.5. To study the various methods of differentiation.6. To try out the methodology adopted by companies to target end consumers.7. To address canonical business questions likeDo companies save the right product/service to offer?How companies reach their customers?How the buying creator can be created?To recrudesc e new business strategiesRESEARCH METHODOLOGY methodologyTechnique used for the survey is questionnaires, accent group discussions and interviews. In order to address the above questions an alpha study was conducted. The idea was to probe and get deeper insight into sales promotion scenario in toilet cleanse market and to tap perceptions of retailers and consumers. In order to address above mentioned objectives (i) study of alternate sources was carried out, 10(ii) in-depth interview of 6 retailers was undertaken and 11(iii) structured questionnaire was designed to seek consumer responses. Convenience take in was used for twain retailers as well as consumer studies. Six retailers ranging from gloomy kirana store to supermarket were approached. All the retailers were located in the Noida. The respondents for consumer study were postgraduate students in the age group of 19-24 belonging to middle and amphetamine middle and upper class. The total respondents were 30 in mo. The y were residing in hostel or as PG hence sole decision-makers for this category. Also this age-group being more experimental and likely to be more deal prone, so their perceptions, preferences would give some insights to companies planning sales promotions targeted at them.Scope and LimitationsThe geographical scope of the study was limit to the NOIDA city overdue to time and resource constraints. The study being exploratory in nature, the stress size was restricted to 30 consumers (student group) and 6 retailers. focussing being mainly on in-depth probing, the generalizations drawn are only indicative and not conclusive.CHAPTER 3I. FMCG AN INTRODUCTIONII. INDIAN circumstanceIII. MARKET OPPORTUNITIESIV. phylogenesis AND CHARECTERSTICSFMCG -FAST MOVING CONSUMER GOODS sketch DECRIPTION OF INDIA FMCG MARKETMARKET OPPORTUNITIES IN FMCGAccording to Estimates sottishd on Chinas current per capita Consumption, the Indian FMCG market is set to treble from US$ 11.6 billion in 2003 to US$ 33.4 billion in 2015. The dominance of Indian markets by unbranded products, change in eating habits and the increased affordability of the growing Indian population presents an opportunity to makers of branded products, who can convertconsumers to branded products.Penetration level in most product categories like jams, toothpaste, skin care, hair wash etc in India is low. The contrast is particularly striking between the rural and urban segments the average consumption by rural households is a lot lower than their urban counterparts. Low penetration indicates the existence of unsaturated markets, which are likely to expand as the income levels rise. This provides an excellent opportunity for the industry players in the form of a vastly untapped market. Moreover, per capita consumption in most of the FMCG categories(including the high penetration categories) in India is low as compared to both the developed markets and other emerging economies. A rise in per capita consumptio n, with improvement in incomes and affordability and change in tastes and preferences, is further expected to boost FMCG demand. Growth is also likely to come from consumer upgrading, especially in the matured product categoriesphylogenesis 1950s-80s Low enthronisation in the sectorLow purchasing powerGovts emphasis on small scale sectorHLL and other companys slender focus interest liberalizationEntry of MNCsFocus shifted to getting to rural consumer firstOthers, like Nestle, remained with the urban populationLatest fad to hit the market is the sachet bug. Mushrooming of regional brandsNirma enters and changes the focus to Value for Money in the 70s post liberalization, Jyothi Laboratories, Ghari Detergent and fasten toothpaste giving the nation-wide brands a run for their money.CHARECTERSTICSFORECAST 2010 inelegant and semi-urban 128 million population thrice the urban Market size result from 48k to degree centigradek Crores (Growth of 50% at 10%CAGR) Increase penetration f rom the current less than 1% Problems in the rural sector* Low per capita disposable incomes* grown number of perfunctory wage workers* Acute dependence on vagaries of monsoon* seasonal worker consumption* sorry infrastructure roads and power supply urban Market 16.5k to 35k Crores (Growth of coke% at 20%CAGR) Intense competition serious pressure on margins Focus on newer products, such as fruit juicesSource Assocham encompass Future Prospects of FMCGCHAPTER 5I. misgiving DIFFRENTIATIONII. TYPES OF DIFFRENTIATIONIII. THE INDIAN CONTEXTI.II. arrest specialityDifferentiation is the process of adding a set of important and valued deviances that complete a companys offering from those of its competitors. Differentiation is strongest when it satisfies all of the sideline criteria1. Important the difference delivers a highly valued benefit to a sufficient number of buyers2. Distinctive the difference can be delivered in a clear way3. Superior the difference is a break of f way of obtaining a benefit4. Pre-emptive the difference cannot be easily copied5. affordable the buyer can afford to pay for the difference6. Profitable the company entrust earn a return by maintaining the difference defacement consignment in fast moving consumer goods categories is a topical issue, with several brands resorting to price cuts across categories. More importantly, price cuts or sales promotion by themselves do not seem to have done much for brands in terms of go alonging brand committedness. They may attract consumers in the utterly run consumers may stock the brands and consumers new to the brand may try it. But over a period of time, a brands value may get thin out in consumers psyche, and will eventually lose a strong base of consumers. The following are some aspects of merchandise mix elements and consumer behavior which could grant to brand loyalty.Product differentiationIf the products are tell in their characteristics and this difference is perceiv able, there are chances of brand loyalty being formed base on satisfaction with greater performance or fit of product with needs. In this case, loyalty is driven by running(a) or typic benefits. Functional benefits would be specific tangible features of the product whereas symbolic benefits would be intangibles such as brand personality and hedonistic value of purchase. legal injury differentiationIf the price differentiation in the market is perceivable, price-led loyalty capability exist in the market. Price-led loyalty is practised by supermarkets, airline companies and FMCG brands, which come out with frequent sales promotions based on freebies. Alternatively, price index be taken as an indicator of brand quality, and the customer business leader go in for higher priced options. Price-led loyalty has to be carefully considered with other marketing mix elements and the consumer should never perceive dilution, especially in cheap bands. Hence, lower prices should create a sense of value through the product offerings as well as through communication. stigmatization activityIf the category is organized and there is branding activity, there will be greater loyalty than there would have been if the category were unorganized. stigmatisation activities can differentiate between brands on name, symbol, images and associations. Branding activity in this context refers to creating strong associations which will influence the consumers not only with regard to functional attributes but also with symbolism. Hamam soaps portrayal of its pure ingredients with the child and mother imagery is a good example of one of these dimensions.Branding activities in a grand sense could range from advertising to sales promotion and public relations involving several aspects.III. The Indian contextThe following were the observations from the writings survey and the examples elect from the Indian context.The factors indicate that there will be a epic segment of consumers for whom price-led loyalty will dominate. Hence there will be strong behavioural loyalty in the segment and only exhausted attitudinal loyalty. There is thus spurious loyalty in this sector.There is a moderate level of symbolic and functional differentiation which has been exploited by strong brands to build a loyal following. Examples of this embroil brands such as Dove, Ponds Dreamflower talcum powder, lucky Flake, Wills Navy Cut, Amul and Cadbury. These brands have likely built strong attitudinal loyalty through their brand personality and other brand structure causas.In the FMCG sector, brand habit is high whereas attitudinal loyalty is low. As creating attitudinal loyalty based on functional differentiation is difficult, symbolic differentiation is the key. twist strong brand personalities and associated symbolic benefits is important for crafting customer loyalty.The factors discussed cannot be interact in isolation they are to provide a synergy to result in brand loyalty . The faction of these factors and the timing of the combination is the topical scrap which marketers face in an environment where loyalty is slow eroding.Local challengers few of the most victorious FMCG brands in 2002 came, not from the stables of a Hindustan Lever and a Colgate, but from obscure regional players such as Kaleesuwari Refineries, Parakh Foods, Anchor Switchboards and Kanpur Detergents. all over the past couple of years, brands such as Gold winner and similitude in refined oils, Anchor White in toothpastes and Ghari in detergents have managed to sustain double digit growth rates, even as the market leading have struggled to hold on to adept digit growth rates for their brands.Yes, the comparison is unfair, as the topical anesthetic brands had a minuscule base to start with. But these brands have demonstrated it is not impossible for a new challenger to break into the traditional bastion of one or two large FMCG players. Traditionally, large FMCG categories in India have been dominated by just one or two players, who chemical formula the roost by dint of their sheer financial muscle and dispersal reach. But, of late, successful regional brands have been finding chinks in their armour. And howAggressive pricingIn the edible oils market, as subject players were forced to hike their change prices in response to wage hike commodity prices, both Gemini and Gold Winner have used aggressive pricing to woo consumers away from the national brands. Packed tea too, has seen similar trends. The limited differentiation in grocery store and the flexibility offered by a restricted area of operations have stood these companies in good stead. Anchor White, among the few debutants in the toothpaste market to bring in a square share, first wooed the retail trade with high statistical dispersion margins, and then used rock-bottom prices to lure consumers into trying the product. Though none of these companies can controvert the market leaders in adspend, they have used focused regional and local advertising to draw consumers attention to their brands.The mushrooming of local and regional media has undoubtedly helped the local players milk the most from their ad budgets.Banking on power brands small-arm the local brands have been adding to their brand portfolios, the market leaders have largely stayed off new product launches.In belongings with its power brand strategy, Hindustan Levers marketing strategies in 2002 revolved around rejigging and relaunching complete brands such as Lifebuoy, Rin, Surf and Vim. The company phased out brands such as Sunlight in detergents, and Jai in toilet soaps, so as to focus better on its 30 power brands.The strategy appears to have worked, as brands such as Lifebuoy and Rin have moved into a higher growth trajectory afterward the relaunch.In fact, HLLs power brand strategy has found a few followers in the FMCG market, with companies such as Godrej Consumer also announcing plans to focu s on a clutch of key brands.Streamlining and spend time the power brand strategy has helped the leading players put their marketing artistic creation behind their most important brands, it has not really helped them fulfil on ad spend. For most FMCG companies, advertising and promotion spends in 2002 grew faster than their sales. In high penetration categories such as soaps, detergents and toothpastes, marketing efforts of the players revolved around persuading existing consumers to use more of the product or to upgrade toa higher-priced brand. The slew of 100 gm free for every 150 gm offers in toothpastes and the serial publication of promos on the 2 kg packs of premium detergents were both intended to suffer existing consumers of a product to pep up their usage of the brand.Companies operate in relatively low-penetration categories such as chocolates, shampoos and skin creams tailored their marketing strategies to bringing in new users, through scaled-down versions of their br ands in affordable pack sizes. The low-priced Chocostik, a liquid chocolate in a small-sized pack, launched by Nestle India, has helped pep up the companys topline and is now a large subscriber to the companys revenues. Nestle India is now trying out a similar small-sized Rs 5 pack for Maggi noodles.Shampoos have been among the few FMCG categories to register a positive growth rate in 2002, and growth in this category has been driven mainly by sachet packs and by scaled-down 50 ml bottles priced at less than Rs 10.Overall, the FMCG interim of the past three years has served a reclaimable purpose. At one level, it has made sure that the dominant players in the market no womb-to-tomb enjoy unlimited pricing power, as they have in the past. There now appears to be a greater effort on the part of the players to hold selling prices and look at their own operations to save on cost. At another level, the emergence of the regional challengers has made sure that consumers of FMCG product s have a few more choices in their purchases of essentials. Is selling soap the same as selling a TV?It isnt. The difference is how the particular product is sold and more importantly, how is it distributed. India is a unique market, where the manufacturers who deliver products at the doorstep, which is the ideal way to deliver anything, spoil our consumers. We have an extremely evolved distribution mechanism for most products. Different products are sent to the consumer differently. Depending on the number, the price of the product and the complexity of the selling process,they may qualify from direct selling to selling through a channel that may have as many asfour levels between the manufacturer and the consumer. A look at a few of them will show what it means to be a sales person of that product.Most FMCG (fast moving consumer goods) products are not hard-sold to the end consumers. Sales are built up largely by pull a technique using advertising and consumer promotion. The sel l-in happens to the trade i.e. to various members of the distribution channel the CarryingForwarding/Super-stockist, the distributor, the wholesaler and most importantly the retailer, who is the interface with the end-consumer. This ambit forms the most important link in getting the product economically to the consumers doorstep.A large MNC in the FMCG industry may be natural covering as many as 1 million outlets across the uncouth with the help of thousands of distributors. Even a mid-sized company covers at the least 1 lakh outlets. Factoring in the vagaries of operating in more than 25 different states, each with its own sales revenue complexities, different consumer needs, differences in the distribution structure, not forgetting differing octroi structures within a state, distribution is extremely complex in India. If the sell-in does not happen to this channel for some(prenominal) reason or is sub- optimal, a product is likely to fail.CHAPTER 3I. UNDERSTANDING ADVERTISEM ENTII. UNDERSTANDING SALES- PROMOTIONIII. CREATING DIFFRENTIATION THROUGH ADVERTISEMENTIV. PROBLEMS FACED BY MARKETERSI. UNDERSTANDING ADVERTISEMENTSWhether it is a serial in a regional air channel or a One Day International play match, there is a non-stop stream of advertisements, which clutter the commercial break. Well-established brands attempt to sustain brand recall while new ones try appealing to potential consumers to get into their status set. There are ads for children, housewives and youth. With advertising expenditure in the order of Rs. 8000 Crores per annum in the recent times and the proliferation of brands across categories, there is a strong need to consider the effectiveness of these advertisements. The idea is not to wind up advertising but to consider how considering decisions would have to be considered with non-advertising alternatives. These non-advertising alternatives may also enable a brand to create and sustain consistent associations, which may be w anted in terms of long-term implications. A coeval approach that creates a synergy between various aspects of a promotional mix (advertising included) provides a refreshing approach towards marketing communications. There may be several objectives of advertising and a promotional mix could be used in an innovative manner to address each of these objectives depending on the product category and target segment.Creating-brand-awarenessWhen a new brand enters a category or creates a new to the market offering, it needs to create brand awareness. This would depend on whether the product is a consumable or a durable. The employment level in a speciFMCG Market AnalysisFMCG Market AnalysisEXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe FMCG market is set to treble from US$ 11.6 billion in 2003 to US$ 33.4 billion in 2015. Penetration level as well as per capita consumption in most product categories like jams, toothpaste, skin care, hair wash etc in India is low indicating the untapped market potential. Burgeoning Indian population, particularly the middle class and the rural segments, presents an opportunity to makers of branded products to convert consumers to branded products. Growth is also likely to come from consumer upgrading in the matured product categories. With 200 million people expected to shift to processed and packaged food by 2010, India needs around US$ 28 billion of investment in the food-processing industry.Rapid urbanization, increased literacy and rising per capita income, have all caused rapid growth and change in demand patterns, leading to an explosion of new opportunities. Around 45 per cent of the population in India is below 20 years of age and the young population is set to rise further. Aspiration levels in this age group have been fuelled by greater media exposure, unleashing a latentdemand with more money and a new mindset.The importance of consumer sales promotion in the marketing mix of the fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) category throughout the world has in creased. Companies spend considerable time in planning such activities. However, in order to enhance the effectiveness of these activities, manufacturers should understand consumer and retailer interpretations of their promotional activities so that appropriate differentiation can be used.Retailers stated that role of word of mouth and television advertising was very important in providing information inputs to the consumers regarding sales promotion activities. This perception of retailers was supported by the consumer unaided recall of sales promotion schemes which were widely advertised.The research concludes with the discussion of the results, managerial implications limitation of the study and future research directions.CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONI. ABOUT THE DISSERTATIONINTRODUCTIONAdvertisements convey brand differentiation and this may be important in several categories, which consist of several brands. In FMCG products like tea, coffee and detergents, differentiation awareness ca n be created by television advertising, but in certain categories there may be a need to demonstrate the effectiveness of brands. Differentiation with which consumers cannot connect may have a negative implication and if a brand connects consumers with its differentiation, it is likely to also differentiate itself in terms of getting identified with the consumer. A detergent or a washing machine, which claims low water consumption has to demonstrate this claim at a retail outlet especially given the fact that the quality of water varies across areas even in a specific geographical region. It is also essential that a good differentiation proposition result in a positive word-of-mouth.In a certain situation, the company may have two offerings in a product-line and there is a need to differentiate them clearly depending on the target segments involved. This is a complex situation where differentiation decides the growth of the brand and the perceived difference between the offerings. A n added layer to the complexity is the same brand name being used for the offerings. Fairness cream is a category in which the benefit is the fairness of the complexion. A brand like Fair and Lovely built over the years still has a strong association with the category but under tremendous pressure from competitive brands and the most important criteria which these brands is the herbal touch associated with them. Herbal ingredients are becoming popular with consumers in several categories and personal care in India has a strong tradition of herbal care. Fair and Lovely had to launch its herbal variant (it used the same brand probably because of the brand equity built up over the years). The interesting fact is the differentiation being conveyed by advertising. The original version uses an aspiration route in which the brands ultimate benefit is success through confidence.Estimates based on Chinas current per capita Consumption, the Indian FMCG market is set to treble from US$ 11.6 bi llion in 2003 to US$ 33.4 billion in 2015. The dominance of Indian markets by unbranded products, change in eating habits and the increased affordability of the growing Indian population presents an opportunity to makers of branded products, who can convertconsumers to branded products.Penetration level in most product categories like jams, toothpaste, skin care, hair wash etc in India is low. The contrast is particularly striking between the rural and urban segments the average consumption by rural households is much lower than their urban counterparts. Low penetration indicates the existence of unsaturated markets, which are likely to expand as the income levels rise. This provides an excellent opportunity for the industry players in the form of a vastly untapped market. Moreover, per capita consumption in most of the FMCG categories(including the high penetration categories) in India is low as compared to both the developed markets and other emerging economies. A rise in per cap ita consumption, with improvement in incomes and affordability and change in tastes and preferences, is further expected to boost FMCG demand. Growth is also likely to come from consumer upgrading, especially in the matured product categories.CHAPTER 2I. LITERATURE REVIEWImpact of Effective Advertisement on Consumer Attitude Dr. F.R. Alexander Pravin DuraiBy going through this article I have come across some points which you should look upon. If you want to read the article it is present in the appendix. Following are some points-Advertising is the only direct method which helps to reach masses of potential buyers. Advertising, being dynamic, changes with changing methods of distribution and consumption.In the present era of information explosion and media influence, these advertisements playa major role in changing the settled perception or thinking, which is otherwise called attitude, of the consumer and also the consumption pattern of the society in general. Thus, the impact lead s to cultural and social changes to a great extent.Why is there a need of advertising? Advertising is a way of communicating information to the consumer which enables him or her to compare and choose from the products and services available. Advertising is the most economical means by which a manufacturer or an Institutional body can communicate to an audience whether to sell a product or promote a cause of social welfare.Essentials of Effective Advertisement-the writer thinks that there are 4 important things for an advertisement to be effective. They are importance of claim, believable, uniqueness and repetition.The advertiser must constantly assess the situation to choose the right environment and ideal time for an advertisement to be launched. Some of the situations are as follows-When there is a favorable primary demand of particular product.When there is a distinctive product differentiation from other competitive brands.When mass market is penetrated.In order to ensure that t he advertisements reach the target consumers in a most effective way and gets right response from them, it has to be ensuring that such advertisements are presented in the right way. The following steps on the part of the consumer may ensure that the advertisements are on the right track.Getting attracted towards the advertisements.Listening and observing the contents of the advertisements in full.Continuous watching of the same over a period.Comparing the advertisements of similar products.Making a trial purchase as follow up activity.Assessing the level of utility of the product individually.Ascertaining the level of utility derived with other similar consumers.In the article Dr. Alexander Told about a model which exemplifies the attitude or response of a consumer to an advertisement.Techniques of advertising for Fast Moving Consumer GoodsDr. Archi Mathur- Assistant lecturer, Department of Management Studies, National Law University, Jodhpur Dr. HK Bedi- Professor, Dean, Departmen t of Management Studies, National Law University, JodhpurThis article shows how an advertiser can use different techniques of advertisements to show FMCG products. The techniques are as followsValue added ads- In addition to providing information about the product Value-added advertising transforms a product into something more appealing to consumers than the physical object produced in the factory. Therefore, it is a missing link between brand attributes and the customer perception, between product features and need fulfillment, .between benefits and values.Comparative ads- the advertiser compares the 2 brands of the same product category. The ad can be copied as the Pepsi and sprite example in the case. They have used the same story but both have them had a different approach.Informative ads- these ads are used to provide information to the consumer about different products and services.Health and Hygiene ads- these ads show that the product is taking care of the consumers health. It is emphasizing of the physical attribute of the product. What does the product do? How does it help you? The ad tells you all. These are some of the techniques.Lifestyle ads- Another way to. nave an impact on the consumers mind is portraying the life-style of a successful person.Humorous ads- Humor in the advertisement is normally kept in order to create a light, jovial and likely kind of an atmosphereDemographic ads- these ads are meant for different segments based on age, sex etc. Farex Cereal Food for infants is an advertisement targeted directly towards the infants, as it comprises a healthy food for them. It is also targeted indirectly towards the mother.Packaging ads- Advertisement is trying to lure the customers to buy their products on the basis of the way they are brought in front of the consumers eyes ie. Packaging. Dabur has brought in different flavors in the market of fruit juice. E.g. Mango, Pineapple, Orange, Mixed Fruit Jete. All these are in different packages, i.e. 50 ml, 1000 ml, etc. They claim that unlike other juices, which have preservatives in them, these products are without preservatives. Hence, the punch line is Real Fruit Juice.Price ads- Marketers also lure the customers by showing in an advertisement that a product is available at a lesser price without any compromise on the standard. Cadbury India advertised the 5-Star chocolate by offering 30% more chocolate in its 5-Star bar for the same price.Celebrity ads- Celebrities are mainly used in the advertisement either to lure the rural people in buying a particular product or in forcing the young generation to buy the products. This is also called endorsement advertising.,t is also used in portraying that a particular product is best inqtJality because a person who is also very well known in his/her field endorses it. The impact of these stars in advertisements enables the company to increase its sale.CHAPTER 3I. RESEARCH METHODOLOGYII. RESEARCH OBJECTIVEThe main objectives of t he study are1. To assess current consumer sales promotion schemes in the market2. To assess how consumers differentiate the products based on advertisements3. To get an insight into retailers views regarding the schemes being offered in toilet soap category, and consumer perceptions4. To study consumer perceptions regarding various schemes in this category and responses toward them.5. To study the various methods of differentiation.6. To analyze the methodology adopted by companies to target end consumers.7. To address basic business questions likeDo companies have the right product/service to offer?How companies reach their customers?How the buying power can be created?To prepare new business strategiesRESEARCH METHODOLOGYMethodologyTechnique used for the survey is questionnaires, focus group discussions and interviews. In order to address the above questions an exploratory study was conducted. The idea was to probe and get deeper insight into sales promotion scenario in toilet soa p market and to tap perceptions of retailers and consumers. In order to address above mentioned objectives (i) study of secondary sources was carried out, 10(ii) in-depth interview of six retailers was undertaken and 11(iii) structured questionnaire was designed to seek consumer responses. Convenience sampling was used for both retailers as well as consumer studies. Six retailers ranging from small kirana store to supermarket were approached. All the retailers were located in the Noida. The respondents for consumer study were postgraduate students in the age group of 19-24 belonging to middle and upper middle and upper class. The total respondents were 30 in number. They were residing in hostel or as PG hence sole decision-makers for this category. Also this age-group being more experimental and likely to be more deal prone, so their perceptions, preferences would give some insights to companies planning sales promotions targeted at them.Scope and LimitationsThe geographical scope o f the study was restricted to the NOIDA city due to time and resource constraints. The study being exploratory in nature, the sample size was restricted to 30 consumers (student group) and 6 retailers. Focus being mainly on in-depth probing, the generalizations drawn are only indicative and not conclusive.CHAPTER 3I. FMCG AN INTRODUCTIONII. INDIAN CONTEXTIII. MARKET OPPORTUNITIESIV. EVOLUTION AND CHARECTERSTICSFMCG -FAST MOVING CONSUMER GOODSBRIEF DECRIPTION OF INDIA FMCG MARKETMARKET OPPORTUNITIES IN FMCGAccording to Estimates based on Chinas current per capita Consumption, the Indian FMCG market is set to treble from US$ 11.6 billion in 2003 to US$ 33.4 billion in 2015. The dominance of Indian markets by unbranded products, change in eating habits and the increased affordability of the growing Indian population presents an opportunity to makers of branded products, who can convertconsumers to branded products.Penetration level in most product categories like jams, toothpaste, skin care, hair wash etc in India is low. The contrast is particularly striking between the rural and urban segments the average consumption by rural households is much lower than their urban counterparts. Low penetration indicates the existence of unsaturated markets, which are likely to expand as the income levels rise. This provides an excellent opportunity for the industry players in the form of a vastly untapped market. Moreover, per capita consumption in most of the FMCG categories(including the high penetration categories) in India is low as compared to both the developed markets and other emerging economies. A rise in per capita consumption, with improvement in incomes and affordability and change in tastes and preferences, is further expected to boost FMCG demand. Growth is also likely to come from consumer upgrading, especially in the matured product categoriesEVOLUTION 1950s-80s Low Investment in the sectorLow purchasing powerGovts emphasis on small scale sectorHLL and othe r companys urbane focus Post liberalizationEntry of MNCsFocus shifted to getting to rural consumer firstOthers, like Nestle, remained with the urban populationLatest fad to hit the market is the sachet bug. Mushrooming of regional brandsNirma enters and changes the focus to Value for Money in the 70sPost liberalization, Jyothi Laboratories, Ghari Detergent and Anchor toothpaste giving the nation-wide brands a run for their money.CHARECTERSTICSFORECAST 2010 Rural and semi-urban 128 million population thrice the urban Market size growth from 48k to 100k Crores (Growth of 50% at 10%CAGR) Increase penetration from the current less than 1% Problems in the rural sector* Low per capita disposable incomes* Large number of daily wage earners* Acute dependence on vagaries of monsoon* Seasonal consumption* Poor infrastructure roads and power supply Urban Market 16.5k to 35k Crores (Growth of 100% at 20%CAGR) Intense competition severe pressure on margins Focus on newer products, such as fru it juicesSource Assocham Report Future Prospects of FMCGCHAPTER 5I. UNDERSTANDING DIFFRENTIATIONII. TYPES OF DIFFRENTIATIONIII. THE INDIAN CONTEXTI.II. UNDERSTANDING DIFFERENTIATIONDifferentiation is the process of adding a set of meaningful and valued differences that distinguish a companys offering from those of its competitors. Differentiation is strongest when it satisfies all of the following criteria1. Important the difference delivers a highly valued benefit to a sufficient number of buyers2. Distinctive the difference can be delivered in a clear way3. Superior the difference is a better way of obtaining a benefit4. Pre-emptive the difference cannot be easily copied5. Affordable the buyer can afford to pay for the difference6. Profitable the company will earn a return by maintaining the differenceBRAND loyalty in fast moving consumer goods categories is a topical issue, with several brands resorting to price cuts across categories. More importantly, price cuts or sales promot ion by themselves do not seem to have done much for brands in terms of sustaining brand loyalty. They may attract consumers in the short run consumers may stock the brands and consumers new to the brand may try it. But over a period of time, a brands value may get diluted in consumers psyche, and will eventually lose a strong base of consumers. The following are some aspects of marketing mix elements and consumer behavior which could contribute to brand loyalty.Product differentiationIf the products are differentiated in their characteristics and this difference is perceivable, there are chances of brand loyalty being formed based on satisfaction with greater performance or fit of product with needs. In this case, loyalty is driven by functional or symbolic benefits. Functional benefits would be specific tangible features of the product whereas symbolic benefits would be intangibles such as brand personality and hedonistic value of purchase.Price differentiationIf the price differen tiation in the market is perceivable, price-led loyalty might exist in the market. Price-led loyalty is practised by supermarkets, airline companies and FMCG brands, which come out with frequent sales promotions based on freebies. Alternatively, price might be taken as an indicator of brand quality, and the customer might go in for higher priced options. Price-led loyalty has to be carefully considered with other marketing mix elements and the consumer should never perceive dilution, especially in low-priced bands. Hence, lower prices should create a sense of value through the product offerings as well as through communication.Branding activityIf the category is organized and there is branding activity, there will be greater loyalty than there would have been if the category were unorganized. Branding activities can differentiate between brands on name, symbol, images and associations. Branding activity in this context refers to creating strong associations which will influence the consumers not only with regard to functional attributes but also with symbolism. Hamam soaps portrayal of its pure ingredients with the child and mother imagery is a good example of one of these dimensions.Branding activities in a broad sense could range from advertising to sales promotion and public relations involving several aspects.III. The Indian contextThe following were the observations from the literature survey and the examples chosen from the Indian context.The factors indicate that there will be a large segment of consumers for whom price-led loyalty will dominate. Hence there will be strong behavioural loyalty in the segment and only weak attitudinal loyalty. There is thus spurious loyalty in this sector.There is a moderate level of symbolic and functional differentiation which has been exploited by strong brands to build a loyal following. Examples of this include brands such as Dove, Ponds Dreamflower talcum powder, Gold Flake, Wills Navy Cut, Amul and Cadbury. These b rands have probably built strong attitudinal loyalty through their brand personality and other brand building efforts.In the FMCG sector, brand habit is high whereas attitudinal loyalty is low. As creating attitudinal loyalty based on functional differentiation is difficult, symbolic differentiation is the key. Building strong brand personalities and associated symbolic benefits is important for crafting customer loyalty.The factors discussed cannot be treated in isolation they are to provide a synergy to result in brand loyalty. The combination of these factors and the timing of the combination is the topical challenge which marketers face in an environment where loyalty is slowly eroding.Local challengersSome of the most successful FMCG brands in 2002 came, not from the stables of a Hindustan Lever and a Colgate, but from obscure regional players such as Kaleesuwari Refineries, Parakh Foods, Anchor Switchboards and Kanpur Detergents. Over the past couple of years, brands such as G old Winner and Gemini in refined oils, Anchor White in toothpastes and Ghari in detergents have managed to sustain double digit growth rates, even as the market leaders have struggled to hold on to single digit growth rates for their brands.Yes, the comparison is unfair, as the local brands had a minuscule base to start with. But these brands have demonstrated it is not impossible for a new challenger to break into the traditional bastion of one or two large FMCG players. Traditionally, large FMCG categories in India have been dominated by just one or two players, who rule the roost by dint of their sheer financial muscle and distribution reach. But, of late, successful regional brands have been finding chinks in their armour. And howAggressive pricingIn the edible oils market, as national players were forced to hike their selling prices in response to rising commodity prices, both Gemini and Gold Winner have used aggressive pricing to woo consumers away from the national brands. Pa cked tea too, has seen similar trends. The limited differentiation in grocery and the flexibility offered by a restricted area of operations have stood these companies in good stead. Anchor White, among the few debutants in the toothpaste market to garner asignificant share, first wooed the retail trade with high distribution margins, and then used rock-bottom prices to lure consumers into trying the product. Though none of these companies can match the market leaders in adspend, they have used focused regional and local advertising to draw consumers attention to their brands.The mushrooming of local and regional media has undoubtedly helped the local players milk the most from their ad budgets.Banking on power brandsWhile the local brands have been adding to their brand portfolios, the market leaders have largely stayed off new product launches.In keeping with its power brand strategy, Hindustan Levers marketing strategies in 2002 revolved around rejigging and relaunching establish ed brands such as Lifebuoy, Rin, Surf and Vim. The company phased out brands such as Sunlight in detergents, and Jai in toilet soaps, so as to focus better on its 30 power brands.The strategy appears to have worked, as brands such as Lifebuoy and Rin have moved into a higher growth trajectory after the relaunch.In fact, HLLs power brand strategy has found a few followers in the FMCG market, with companies such as Godrej Consumer also announcing plans to focus on a clutch of key brands.Streamlining and spendWhile the power brand strategy has helped the leading players put their marketing prowess behind their most important brands, it has not really helped them save on ad spend. For most FMCG companies, advertising and promotion spends in 2002 grew faster than their sales. In high penetration categories such as soaps, detergents and toothpastes, marketing efforts of the players revolved around persuading existing consumers to use more of the product or to upgrade toa higher-priced bra nd. The slew of 100 gm free for every 150 gm offers in toothpastes and the series of promos on the 2 kg packs of premium detergents were both intended to induce existing consumers of a product to pep up their usage of the brand.Companies operating in relatively low-penetration categories such as chocolates, shampoos and skin creams tailored their marketing strategies to bringing in new users, through scaled-down versions of their brands in affordable pack sizes. The low-priced Chocostik, a liquid chocolate in a small-sized pack, launched by Nestle India, has helped pep up the companys topline and is now a large contributor to the companys revenues. Nestle India is now trying out a similar small-sized Rs 5 pack for Maggi noodles.Shampoos have been among the few FMCG categories to register a positive growth rate in 2002, and growth in this category has been driven mainly by sachet packs and by scaled-down 50 ml bottles priced at less than Rs 10.Overall, the FMCG slowdown of the past t hree years has served a useful purpose. At one level, it has made sure that the dominant players in the market no longer enjoy unlimited pricing power, as they have in the past. There now appears to be a greater effort on the part of the players to hold selling prices and look at their own operations to save on cost. At another level, the emergence of the regional challengers has made sure that consumers of FMCG products have a few more choices in their purchases of essentials. Is selling soap the same as selling a TV?It isnt. The difference is how the particular product is sold and more importantly, how is it distributed. India is a unique market, where the manufacturers who deliver products at the doorstep, which is the ideal way to deliver anything, spoil our consumers. We have an extremely evolved distribution mechanism for most products. Different products are sent to the consumer differently. Depending on the number, the price of the product and the complexity of the selling p rocess,they may vary from direct selling to selling through a channel that may have as many asfour levels between the manufacturer and the consumer. A look at a few of them will show what it means to be a sales person of that product.Most FMCG (fast moving consumer goods) products are not hard-sold to the end consumers. Sales are built up largely by pull a technique using advertising and consumer promotion. The sell-in happens to the trade i.e. to various members of the distribution channel the CarryingForwarding/Super-stockist, the distributor, the wholesaler and most importantly the retailer, who is the interface with the end-consumer. This chain forms the most important link in getting the product economically to the consumers doorstep.A large MNC in the FMCG industry may be covering as many as 1 million outlets across the country with the help of thousands of distributors. Even a mid-sized company covers at the least 1 lakh outlets. Factoring in the vagaries of operating in mo re than 25 different states, each with its own sales tax complexities, different consumer needs, differences in the distribution structure, not forgetting differing octroi structures within a state, distribution is extremely complex in India. If the sell-in does not happen to this channel for whatever reason or is sub- optimal, a product is likely to fail.CHAPTER 3I. UNDERSTANDING ADVERTISEMENTII. UNDERSTANDING SALES- PROMOTIONIII. CREATING DIFFRENTIATION THROUGH ADVERTISEMENTIV. PROBLEMS FACED BY MARKETERSI. UNDERSTANDING ADVERTISEMENTSWhether it is a serial in a regional satellite channel or a One Day International cricket match, there is a non-stop stream of advertisements, which clutter the commercial break. Well-established brands attempt to sustain brand recall while new ones try appealing to prospective consumers to get into their consideration set. There are ads for children, housewives and youth. With advertising expenditure in the order of Rs. 8000 Crores per annum in the recent times and the proliferation of brands across categories, there is a strong need to consider the effectiveness of these advertisements. The idea is not to cease advertising but to consider how considering decisions would have to be considered with non-advertising alternatives. These non-advertising alternatives may also enable a brand to create and sustain consistent associations, which may be desirable in terms of long-term implications. A contemporary approach that creates a synergy between various aspects of a promotional mix (advertising included) provides a refreshing approach towards marketing communications. There may be several objectives of advertising and a promotional mix could be used in an innovative manner to address each of these objectives depending on the product category and target segment.Creating-brand-awarenessWhen a new brand enters a category or creates a new to the market offering, it needs to create brand awareness. This would depend on whether the pro duct is a consumable or a durable. The involvement level in a speci

The role of icts in addressing challenges in higher education

The role of icts in addressing ch every(prenominal)enges in high(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) didactics ABSTRACT One of the most common problems of using instruction and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in cultivation is to base selections on technological possibilities so atomic number 53r than commandmental needs. In developing countries where higher(prenominal) raising is fraught with skillful challenges at multiple levels, there is increasing rack to ensure that technological possibilities are viewed in the consideration of readingal needs. This newspaper publisher argues that a interchange role of facts of lifeal engine room is to pop the question amplificational strategies that can be mapd to address the serious environmental and educational challenges faced by educators and learners in higher education. The educational needs manifest in Indian universities allow addressing general lack of academic set, multilingual needs in position medium set tings, ample stratum sizes and forgetful platform origination. utilize case studies from one higher educational institution, this paper shows how specific and cautiously considered interventions using ICTs can be utilize to address these inform method and encyclopedism concerns. These examples serve to demonstrate some ship canal in which pedagogics and instruction may be enhanced when uses of educational applied science are driven by educational needs.The paper concludes that design of educational engineering interventions should be driven by educational needs deep down the condition of a broader pedagogics and nurture strategy which requires buy-in of both educators and contracters. INTRODUCTION It has been insinuateed that selective randomness and talk technologies (ICTs) can and do turn tail a number of roles in education. These include providing a catalyst for rethinking belief practice (Flecknoe, 2002 McCormick Scrimshaw, 2001) developing the kin d of graduates and citizens needed in an information society (Department of fostering, 2001) upward(a) educational outcomes (especially pass rates) and enhancing and improving the tincture of pedagogy and schooling (Wagner, 2001 Garrison Anderson, 2003). While all of these suggest the potentness impact of ICTs in education in general and India in particular, it is legato difficult to demonstrate the potential of technologies in addressing specific training and information problems faced by Indian higher education institutions. The thesis of this paper is that the potential of ICTs is sandwiched between increasing pressure on higher education institutions from government to impinge on the social transformation and skills needs of India, and the variable student academic preparedness, large class sizes and multilingualism currently experienced in these inform and erudition contexts. Our thinking aligns with another(prenominal)s (such as Kirkup Kirkwood, 2005 Wagner, 2001) who argue that it is the contextualized teaching and nurture needs that ought to drive the ICT intervention, kinda than the technology itself. In India, contextualization of teaching and teaching requires a tightrope walk between higher education imperatives and social-cultural context of the educational landscape. This paper illustrates by means of examples drawn from one higher education institution how educational needs can drive design of information environments and technological use.The question driving this paper is How may educational technology interventions address theteaching and learning challenges faced by Indian higher education institutions? We discuss the general and specific educational challenges. These challenges then entrust a context for an ICT intervention framework which is calculated and examples of the use of this framework in course of study projects are discussed. CHALLENGES FACING HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA general challenges Currently, hig her education in India is under increasing pressure to spiel the social transformation and skills needs of the new India (Kistan, 2002). At the same snip it is under immense external and internal pressure to improve on its insurance indemnity and deli precise surgical ferment (De Clercq, 2002). One of the indicators of social transformation in education is increasing the demographic original among graduates and reducing the demographic going between student intake and graduate throughput. The discipline Higher Education Plan (2001) outlines the role of higher education institutions in the new India The discover challenges facing the Indian higher education system retain as outlined inthe White Paper to redress past inequalities and to transform the higher education systemto serve a new social order, to meet public press national needs, and to reply to newrealities and opportunities (White Paper 1.1). (Department of Education India,2001.)Further more than, recent governm ent indemnity has added pressure on higher education institutions by linking funding to throughput. In other words, unlike in the past when institutions were funded on the number of registered get-go year students, funding is now linked to graduate throughput. Improving faculty and addressing the equity needs of the country raises conflicting challenges for higher education institutions (Scott, 2004 1). These challenges are exacerbated by the fact that most students embark university under-prepared and therefore require more support to bridge the gaps in the call for cognition and skills (Paras, 2001). Furthermore, in 2005 quality assurance audits1 tensenessing on the institutional management of core functions of teaching and learning, research and community engagement were conducted at Indian higher education institutions. The challenge for higher education institutions is therefore not only astir(predicate) increasing throughput in terms of numbers and the diversity of its student existence save also involves ensuring quality educational provision.The Indian government has identify the use of ICTs for teaching and learning as an important priority. For example, the e-Education policy states either Indian manager, teacher and learner in the general and further education andtraining bands testament be ICT capable (that is, use ICTs confidently and creatively to helpdevelop the skills and fellowship they need as lifelong learners to achieve personal goalsand to be all-inclusive participants in the fieldwide community) by 2013. (Department of EducationIndia, 2004 17)Thus, the ultimate goal of the policy is the substantialization of ICT-capable managers, educators and learners by 2013. Read together with the National Higher Education Plan, these both policies consider ramifications for instructional designers, educators, students and researchers. The underlying argument of this paper is that the realization of the policys goals generally depe nds on the extent to which current educational challenges are re-conceptualised in the context of the role that ICT can play in teaching and learning. The current focus on teaching and learning coupled with growth in educational technology in Indian higher education institutions (Czerniewicz et al., 2005 The role of ICTs in higher education in India61) requires that we begin to ask questions almost the ways in which educational technology contributes to addressing the educational challenges in the new India. As is the case in higher education globally, Indian higher education is under pressure to increase participation from diverse groups of students and to produce the skills required for a rapidly changing society. In the UK, for example, participation in higher education has increased since the 1940s but participation of higher socio-economic groups still exceeds that of lower socio-economic groups (DFES declare card, 2004). While similar, these challenges take particular forms given Indias unique history. For example, global disparities are defined in terms of class in India the educational disparities are manifested along racial lines due to the political, economic and social policies of the pre-1994 era. repair of marginalised groups and social transformation is therefore central to the policies of post-1994. The Indian government has do it clear that one of its aims is to achieve equitable access to higher education for previously wrongd learners, with diverse educational backgrounds (Hardman Ngambi, 2003).Education is viewed as one of the key mechanisms of achieving social transformation.It is in this educational context that new opportunities for educational technology have arisen.Although we are aware that educational challenges demand multi-pronged approaches, which may include both traditional teaching approaches and innovative non- digital instructional designs, it is the role of educational technology that is the focus of this paper. Speci fic teaching and learning challenges The major teaching and learning challenges facing higher education cast slightly student diversity, which includes, amongst others, diversity in students academic preparedness, oral communication and schooling background. Teaching and learning in higher education in general can largely be characterised as follows instruction that is too didactic, a lack of personal contact between teachers andstudents and among students, prizement methods that are piteous to measuresophisticated learning goals and too little opportunity for students to integrate knowledgefrom different field and apply what they learn to the solution of real-world problems.(Knapper, 2001 94)Teaching and learning in Indian higher education fits the above description but in addition it has to contend with deep-rooted complex issues and problems stemming primarily from a previously racially divided and unequal education system. In addition, large classes are an autochthonous disease feature of most university courses posing an additive challenge in the teaching of a diverse student population.Indian higher education institutions are faced with a myriad teaching and learning challenges. In this paper we focus on a few of these academic preparedness, multilingulism in a first lecture context, large classes and inadequate curriculum design. In the near section, we look at ways in which ICTs have been used to respond to these challenges at one Indian higher education institution. Academic preparedness Students from disadvantaged educational backgrounds as well students from privileged backgrounds generally enter higher education with gaps in the knowledge and skills required for studying peculiarly in key areas such as mathematics (Paras, 2001, Howie Pietersen, 2001) and science.Given the pressure to increase the diversity of the student population of Indian higher education, assessing students potential for advantage in higher education has further ed increasing importance, particularly since the school-leaving present is currently viewed as an inadequate measure of a students potential for success in higher education. In a country such as India, for instance, school-leaving certification has had aparticularly unreliable relationship with higher education academic performance especiallyin cases where this certification intersects with factors such as mother tongue versusmedium-of instruction oddments, inadequate school backgrounds and demographicvariables such as race and socio-economic status (Yeld, 2001 Badha, et al, 1986Scochet, 1986 Potter Jamotte, 1985). (Cliff et al., 2003) supportary placement tests have therefore been used in conjunction with school-leaving certificates to adjudge students with potential into higher education studies (Cliff et al., 2003). Consequently, many another(prenominal) of these students may be under-prepared in that they may not possess the necessary language or numerical proficiencies re quired for higher education or may have gaps in the foundational disciplinary knowledge. Furthermore, university tasks present challenges for under-prepared students (Hardman Ngambi, 2003). Although support programmes to address academic under-preparedness of students from both advantaged as well as disadvantaged groups are offered at many Indian higher education institutions, they are resource intensive. It is therefore worth salaried attention to additional resources and expertise offered by educational technology. Multilingualism in a first language environment India is a multilingual society with 11 official languages. This diversity is reflected in the student population of Indian higher education institutions. A recent study by Czerniewicz Brown (2005) on higher education students and academic staffs access to and use of computers in quintet Indian universities found that 39% of respondents spoke position as a kinfolk language and 54% spoke other languages. At the Univer sity of mantle Town, on average 65% of the student population declared English as their first language while 35% have home languages in the other Indian official languages and other international languages (Spiegel et al., 2003).English is therefore a split second or foreign language for many Indian higher education students. In most black Indian schools, English as a subject is taught as a second language. Higher education students from disadvantaged educational backgrounds therefore have to learn in their second or third language. A considerable carcass of research (Cummins, 1996 Gee, 1990) has shown that language and academic success are closely link up and that academic language proficiency is far more difficult to derive in a second language. Students learning in their second or third language are therefore at a disadvantage which is compounded by poor schooling background.The relationship between language and academic success is reflected in the throughput rates of Englis h second language students when compared to the throughput rates of English first language students. At the University of Cape Town, for example, the difference in throughput rates between English first language and second language students in 2002 was more than 20% in several degrees/programmes (Spiegel et al., 2003). wide-ranging classes The growth of mass higher education has made large classes an endemic feature of several courses at higher education institutions. Large class sizes make it difficult for teachers to employ interactive teaching strategies (Nicol Boyle, 2003) or to gain insight into the difficulties experienced by students. Large classes pose problems for all students but students who are under-prepared are particularly affected. It is these contexts that bring home the bacon profitable opportunities for educational technologies. course of instruction design Curriculum design is a relatively under-engaged area inwardly higher education debate, policy formula tion and practices (Barnett Coate, 2005). Pressure to transform curricula at a macrolevel to the needs of industry and the economy in India is reflected in the National commission on higher educations policy framework (1996) for higher education transformation. in that location is a strong inclination towards closed-system disciplinary approaches andprogrammes that has led to inadequately contextualised teaching and research. Thecontent of the knowledge produced and disseminated is insufficiently responsive to theproblems and needs of the African continent, the southern African region, or the vastnumbers of poor and rural people in our society.In solvent to policy intentions, Indian higher education has implemented a curriculum restructuring policy aimed at the phylogenesis of inter- or multidisciplinary degree programmes (Moore, 2003). While policy has resulted in curriculum shifts on a macro level, curricula contents at a micro-level are driven by disciplinary specialists. Un dergraduate curricula remain predominantly theoretical but require that students have some knowledge of the contexts to make sense of guess. In this paper, we are concerned with the way in which ICTs can play a role in shaping curriculum design at the micro-level. ICTs open up new ways of accessing information thereby changing the relationships between students and between students and their teachers. Access to primary sources in the form of video, audio and photographs which may be contained in digital archive have the potential to influence the content of curricula because it makes previously inaccessible information available. In addition, ICTs enable lecturers to transform their teaching practices by facilitating student-student discussion and collaboration or by simulating real-world problems thus providing students with authentic learning experiences. In this section, we discussed some of the teaching and learning challenges experienced by educators and students in higher ed ucation. In the next section, we examine the role of educational technology in responding to these challenges and provide some examples. RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES Since the teaching and learning challenges are multi-faceted, multi-pronged approaches are needed in order to attempt to solve some of these problems. Dede (1998) postulates information technology is a cost-effective investment only in the context of a systemicreform. Unless other simultaneous innovations in pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, andschool organization are coupled to the usage of instructional technology, the time and effortexpended on implementing these devices produces few improvements in educationaloutcomes and reinforces many educators cynicism about fads establish on magicalmachines.We infer from Dede that there are several inter-related factors that influence improvements in educational outcomes. Thus together, pedagogy, curriculum, assessment and organisation contribute to bringing about improvement s in the educational dish up. Although educational technology is not the panacea for educational challenges, it does leverage and extend traditional teaching and learning activities in authoritative circumstances and hence has the potential to impact on learning outcomes. Knapper (2001) argues that technology may be a good solution for some instructional problems, and in some casesit may be a partial solution. save in other instances technology does little to address thefundamental teaching and learning issue or even worse provides a glitzy butin beguile solution to a problem that has simply been misconstrued. (Knapper, 200194)The trick is to identify situations where educational technology will be appropriate and when and how to use educational technology in these situations. There are propagation where technology may not be useful and may indeed be counter-productive. However, there are many times when educational technology offers a solution for problems that would be diffi cult, cumbersome or impossible to resolve in a face-to-face environment.Numerous manuals, websites and articles have been devoted to suggesting, explaining and modelling the ways that educational technology can be used to support teaching and learning. We agree with Laurillard (2001) that it is important that educational technology-based resources be appropriately matched to both teaching and learning activities. Table 1 competent from Laurillard (2001) usefully explains how educational technology can be integrated into the curriculum. Laurillards guidelines are useful in that they provide a framework which relates ICT-based resources to particular teaching and learning activities. The guidelines therefore suggest particular uses of ICT for particular teaching and learning situations. The effectiveness of ICTs for teaching and learning, however, is largely dependent on how much the context is understood. Thus, there is a need to relate educational technology to actual challenges experienced by both students and lecturers in the Indian educational context. OHagan (1999) suggests that educational technology can be used to present and provide content, assess students learning, provide feedback, scaffold student learning and enable peer-to-peer collaborative learning. The choice of appropriate teaching and learning activities is dependent on a localize of factors such as the curriculum or course objectives i.e. the purpose of the teaching and learning, the educators preferred teaching approach, the learning styles of the student and the nature of the curriculum content. Although we uphold that teachers should use the teaching approach that suits their paradigm of teaching and learning, we believe that the use of educational technology provides teachers with opportunities for traversing an entire continuum of possibilities as may be appropriate to their teaching needs. Educational technology creates affordances for a range of different teaching and learning ac tivities which the teacher may not have used or considered. Table 1 Teaching and learning events and associated media forms Responding to the challenges examples from curriculum projects The affordances of educational technologies provide ways of being sensitive to wide-ranging and differing learning needs. In this section, we describe some curriculum projects that have attempted to respond to some of the educational challenges faced by students at the University of Cape Town (UCT). For the sake of transitoriness only overviews are provided. Using interactive spreadsheets to develop mathematical literacy skills As discussed above, many under-prepared students entering university have potential but do not possess the pertinent mathematical literacy skills required for certain courses (Frith et al., 2004). These students are ofttimes expected to pursue an extended undergraduate degree programme that offers additional support to address mathematical literacy skills. In this case, the teaching challenge is that of finding ways of developing students mathematical literacy skills. Selfcontained interactive spreadsheet-based tutorials were developed for use on the mathematical literacy support courses at UCT and were used in conjunction with face-to-face lectures. A typical tutorial consisted of interactive presentation of relevant mathematics content, examples and exercises. Students were able to work at their own pace and receive nimble feedback. Frith et al. (2004 163) found that while the lecture room tutorial taught students how to calculate the several(a) statistics, the computer tutorial was more effective in giving them an taste of the concepts and they retained better what they had learned. This effect, they argue, is possible due to the shift in ferocity in the computer-based tutorials away from mechanical calculations to demonstrating conceptual understanding. This curriculum project illustrates how educational technology was used to complement teac hing and learning and to support the development of students mathematical literacy skills. Using educational technology to develop academic literacy in an economic science course Economics at university level poses particular difficulties for students since lecturers exact prior knowledge of the economy. Unfortunately, many students from previously disadvantaged communities have very limited knowledge of the economy at the start of their university careers. Under-prepared first year students encounter further difficulties due to a lack of academic literacy skills. The exertion Research Project (Carr et al., 2002) was designed to address economic literacy while simultaneously dealing with language and communication skills of UCT economic students. Interactive excel spreadsheets in conjunction with short writing tasks in the form of online discussions, short essays, reports and presentations were used in academic development economic science courses at UCT. These tasks or activiti es provided a range of opportunities for students to develop understanding of economic discourses through writing in economics. Although Carr et al. (2002 5) found it difficult to measure the impact of these tutorials, which formed a undersize part of the first year economics curriculum, they observed that the interactive spreadsheets were effective teaching tools in that tutors were able to focus students attention on economics issues rather than procedural issues and that the quality of articles produced by students improved due to the online feedback provided during the assist of drafting articles online. This curriculum project demonstrates the use of educational technology in conjunction with face-to-face activities in addressing students academic literacy skills. Using educational technology to manage tutorials in large classes Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) based tutorials system called MOVES were developed aroundExcel and Word to teach computer literacy to first year te aching System students at UCT.MOVES incorporated computer-assisted marking techniques and provided feedback to lecturers and students. The import of this project is that it typifies the problems of teaching a large and diverse class. The computer literacy levels of these students are diverse, with some students not havingtouched a computer before to students who have had home computer and cyberspace facilitiessince the age of five. The immediate challenge this diversity poses on teaching is that it isnot practical to pitch the lecture at an appropriate level to meet all students at their level ofknowledge. The other challenge is in providing feedback messages that are relevant anduseful to individual students. (Ngambi Seymour, 2004 255).Ngambi and Seymour (2004 257) report that the MOVES tutorials saved time for tutors since tutorials were marked and results captured electronically, lecturers had access to student performance and students found the immediate feedback useful in t hat misconceptions could be dealt with immediately. The significance of this project is that it illustrates how educational technology is used to facilitate teaching and learning in large classes. Influencing curriculum design Many university courses are supposition driven and assume that students have knowledge or real world experience and can therefore make the links between theory and practice. Students often have limited experience or practical knowledge and therefore have difficulty in understanding theory. Deacon et al. (2005) report on the use of educational technology to simulate film editing. The Directors twist was produced and used in a Film and Media course at UCT to provide students with insights into the practical processes involved in filmmaking without engaging in the actual process of editing. Exposing students to actual editing is expensive and impractical in a large course. The intervention provided individual students with an authentic learning environment thro ugh a simulation. Students sequenced film clips, hence simulating the role of an editor through a simplify version of the editing process. In this way, the focus is on key learning aspects of film narrative and spectatorship and linked theory to the practice of film editing. Similarly, Carr et al. (2004) report on an International Trade bargaining simulation developed for an economics course where students delusive the role of national trade negotiators representing specific countries. Lecturers and tutors assumed the role of World Trade Organisation (WTO) officials in a semi-authentic process designed to teach students negotiation and bargaining skills similar to those required by professional trade negotiators. The two projects reported here exemplify ways in which educational technology was used to impact on the design of the respective curricula by providing students with experiences which are difficult to provide in face-to-face environments. CONCLUSION Indian universities fac e increasing pressure from government to meet the needs of social transformation in education. Indian government policy on social transformation in education requires increasing the representation of Black Indians and women among students and graduates and significantly improving the graduation rates and throughput of Black Indian students. Given the social-historical context of India, meeting the educational challenges associated with this noble goal requires re-conceptualisation of how educational technologies are applied so as to make an impact. The paper has proposed a model for teaching and learning activities that are associated with media forms. The model has been substantiated with examples of the application of educational technologies to teaching mathematical literacy, academic literacy, management of large classes, and ways of influencing curriculum design. Our argument is that technology alone is not a solution to the educational challenges faced in India. The challenges lie in identifying and conceptualising ways that educational technology can usefully contribute to student learning experiences, curriculum and pedagogic designs. The paper demonstrates and argues that educational technology has a key role to play in Indian higher education as one of the strategies for addressing teaching and learning concerns. This challenges learning designers to rethink the role of educational technology within broader educational interventions that are shaped by educational needs rather than being technologically driven.